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<title>Automatic Computing Engine</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Automatic Computing Engine</span></span>

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<p>The <b>Automatic Computing Engine</b> (<b>ACE</b>) was a British early <a href="Electronic_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic storage">electronic</a> <a href="Serial_computer" title="Serial computer">serial</a> <a href="Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a> design by <a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>. Turing completed the ambitious design in late 1945, having had experience in the years prior with the secret <a href="Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a> computer at <a href="Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>.

</p><p>The ACE was not built, but a smaller version, the <a href="Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot ACE</a>, was constructed at the <a href="National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> and became operational in 1950. A larger implementation of the ACE design was the <b>MOSAIC</b> computer which became operational in 1955. ACE also led to the <a href="Bendix_G-15" title="Bendix G-15">Bendix G-15</a> and other computers.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<p>The project was managed by <a href="John_R._Womersley" title="John R. Womersley">John R. Womersley</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_3_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> superintendent of the Mathematics Division of the <a href="National_Physical_Laboratory%2C_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL). The use of the word <i>Engine</i> was in homage to <a href="Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> and his <a href="Difference_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference Engine">Difference Engine</a> and <a href="Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a>. Turing's technical design <i>Proposed Electronic Calculator</i> was the product of his theoretical work in 1936 "<a href="On_Computable_Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="On Computable Numbers">On Computable Numbers</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Turing1936_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turing1936-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his wartime experience at <a href="Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> where the <a href="Colossus_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Colossus computers">Colossus computers</a> had been successful in breaking German military codes. In his 1936 paper, Turing described his idea as a "universal computing machine", but it is now known as the <a href="Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">Universal Turing machine</a>.

</p><p>Turing was sought by Womersley to work in the NPL on the ACE project; he accepted and began work on 1 October 1945 and by the end of the year he completed his outline of his 'Proposed electronic calculator', which was the first reasonably complete design of a <a href="Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a> and, apart from being on a much larger scale than the final working machine, anticipated the final realisation in most important respects.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of the strict and long-lasting secrecy around the Bletchley Park work, he was prohibited (because of the <a href="Official_Secrets_Act" title="Official Secrets Act">Official Secrets Act</a>) from explaining that he knew that his ideas could be implemented in an electronic device.<sup id="cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mraths-2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The better-known <a href="EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a> design presented in the <i><a href="First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a></i> (dated 30 June 1945), by <a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, who knew of Turing's theoretical work, received much publicity, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas.

</p><p>Turing's report on the ACE was written in late 1945 and included detailed logical circuit diagrams and a cost estimate of £11,200.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_10_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_10-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He felt that speed and size of <a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> were crucial and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 <a href="Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">kilobytes</a>, accessed at a speed of 1 <a href="Hertz" title="Hertz">MHz</a>; he remarked that for the purposes required "the memory needs to be very large indeed by comparison with standards which prevail in most valve and relay work, and [so] it is necessary to look for some more economical form of storage", and that memory "appears to be the main limitation in the design of a calculator, i.e. if the storage problem can be solved all the rest is comparatively straightforward".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACE implemented <a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutine</a> calls,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_6_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_6-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas the EDVAC did not, and what also set the ACE apart from the EDVAC was the use of <i>Abbreviated Computer Instructions,</i><sup id="cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mraths-2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an early form of programming language. Initially, it was planned that <a href="Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a>, the engineer at the <a href="Post_Office_Research_Station" title="Post Office Research Station">Post Office Research Station</a> at <a href="Dollis_Hill" title="Dollis Hill">Dollis Hill</a> in north London, who had been responsible for building the Colossus computers, should build the ACE, but because of the secrecy around his wartime achievements and the pressure of post-war work, this was not possible.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pilot_ACE">Pilot ACE</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot ACE</a></div>

<p>Turing's colleagues at the NPL, not knowing about Colossus, thought that the engineering work to build a complete ACE was too ambitious, so the first version of the ACE that was built was the <a href="Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot Model ACE</a>, a smaller version of Turing's original design. Turing's assistant, <a href="James_H._Wilkinson" title="James H. Wilkinson">Jim Wilkinson</a>, worked on the logical design of the ACE and after Turing left for Cambridge in 1947, Wilkinson was appointed to lead the ACE group.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pilot ACE had fewer than 1000 <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">thermionic valves</a> (vacuum tubes) compared to about 18,000 in the <a href="ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It used <a href="Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">mercury delay lines</a> for its main memory. Each of the 12 delay lines was 5 feet (1.5 m) long and propagated 32 instructions or data words of 32 bits each. This ran its first program on 10 May 1950, at which time it was the fastest computer in the world; each of its delay lines had a throughput of 1 Mbit/s.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The first production versions of the Pilot ACE, the <a href="English_Electric_DEUCE" title="English Electric DEUCE">English Electric DEUCE</a>, of which 31 were sold, were delivered in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland20124,_164,_327_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland20124,_164,_327-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="MOSAIC">MOSAIC</h2></div>

<p>A second implementation of the ACE design was the MOSAIC (Ministry of Supply Automatic Integrator and Computer). This was built by <a href="Allen_Coombs" title="Allen Coombs">Allen Coombs</a> and William Chandler of Dollis Hill who had worked with <a href="Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a> on building the ten Colossus computers. It was installed at the <a href="Radar_Research_and_Development_Establishment" title="Radar Research and Development Establishment">Radar Research and Development Establishment</a> (RRDE) at Malvern, which later merged with the <a href="Telecommunications_Research_Establishment" title="Telecommunications Research Establishment">Telecommunications Research Establishment</a> (TRE) to become the <a href="Royal_Radar_Establishment" title="Royal Radar Establishment">Royal Radar Establishment</a> (RRE). It ran its first trial program in late 1952 or early 1953 and became operational in early 1955. MOSAIC contained 6,480 electronic valves and had an availability of about 75%. It occupied four rooms and was the largest of the early British computers. It was used to calculate aircraft trajectories from radar data. It continued operating until the early 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mraths-2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Derivatives">Derivatives</h2></div>

<p>The principles of the ACE design were used in the <a href="Bendix_Corporation" title="Bendix Corporation">Bendix Corporation</a>'s <a href="Bendix_G-15" title="Bendix G-15">G-15</a> computer.<sup id="cite_ref-cj-1977_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cj-1977-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 279">: 279 </span></sup> The engineering designer was <a href="Harry_Huskey" title="Harry Huskey">Harry Huskey</a> who had spent 1947 in the ACE section at the NPL. He later contributed to the hardware designs for the EDVAC. The first G-15 ran in 1954 and, as a relatively small single-user machine, some consider it to be the first <a href="Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Other derivatives of the ACE include the <a href="EMI#Computers_and_CT_scanner" title="EMI">EMI Electronic Business Machine</a> and the <a href="Packard_Bell_Corporation" title="Packard Bell Corporation">Packard Bell Corporation</a> <a href="PB_250" title="PB 250">PB 250</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-turing-2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turing-2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencephoto.com/keyword/automatic-computing-engine">"automatic computing engine"</a>. <i>Science Photo Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_3-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_3_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopeland2005">Copeland 2005</a>, Chapter 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Turing1936-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Turing1936_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTuring1936" class="citation cs2">Turing, Alan M. (1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", <i>Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society</i>, 2, vol. 42, no. 1 (published 1937), pp. <span class="nowrap">230–</span>65, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-42.1.230">10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73712">73712</a></cite> (and <cite id="CITEREFTuring1938" class="citation cs2">Turing, Alan M. (1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction", <i>Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society</i>, 2, vol. 43, no. 6 (published 1937), pp. <span class="nowrap">544–</span>6, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-43.6.544">10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544</a></cite>)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Origins and development of the ACE project", B. J. Copeland, in Copeland (2005).</span>

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<li id="cite_note-mraths-2016-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mraths-2016_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFM_G_Hutchinson2016" class="citation web cs1">M G Hutchinson (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mraths.org.uk/?page_id=582">"1952 - A Computer comes to Malvern Vale"</a>. Malvern Radar and Technology History Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_10-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_10_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopeland2005">Copeland 2005</a>, Chapter 20, Part I, section 10.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Proposed electronic calculator</i>, Turing, 1945. Reprinted in Copeland (2005).</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_6-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland2005Chapter_20,_Part_I,_section_6_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopeland2005">Copeland 2005</a>, Chapter 20, Part I, section 6.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npl.co.uk/famous-faces/jim-wilkinson">"Jim Wilkinson led the team that built the Pilot ACE"</a>. National Physics Laboratory<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The ACE test assembly</i>, H. D. Huskey, in Copeland (2005).</span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Programming the Pilot ACE</i>, J. G. Hayes. In Copeland (2005).</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland20124,_164,_327-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopeland20124,_164,_327_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopeland2012">Copeland 2012</a>, pp. 4, 164, 327.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/mosaicindex.html">"Catalogue: The MOSAIC Computer"</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBaazPapadimitriouPutnamScott2011" class="citation book cs1">Baaz, Matthias; Papadimitriou, Christos H.; Putnam, Hilary W.; Scott, Dana S.; Jr, Charles L. Harper (6 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg0WXU5_8EgC&dq=MOSAIC+computer+1952&pg=PA173"><i>Kurt Gödel and the Foundations of Mathematics: Horizons of Truth</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781139498432</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-cj-1977-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cj-1977_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenterDoran1977" class="citation cs2">Carpenter, B. E.; Doran, R. W. (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/3/269.abstract">"The other Turing machine"</a>, <i>The Computer Journal</i>, <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">269–</span>279, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcomjnl%2F20.3.269">10.1093/comjnl/20.3.269</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120603100022/http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/3/269.abstract">archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2012</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/sfgate/obituary.aspx?n=Harry-Huskey&pid=185082146">"Harry Huskey - Obituary"</a>. <i>San Francisco Chronicle</i>. 16 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-turing-2004-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-turing-2004_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFB._Jack_Copeland2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Jack Copeland (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dSUTDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Essential Turing</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">370–</span>371. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780198250791</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCarpenterDoran1977" class="citation cs2">Carpenter, B. E.; Doran, R. W. (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/3/269.abstract">"The other Turing machine"</a>, <i>The Computer Journal</i>, <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">269–</span>279, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcomjnl%2F20.3.269">10.1093/comjnl/20.3.269</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120603100022/http://comjnl.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/3/269.abstract">archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2012</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCarpenterDoran1986" class="citation cs2">Carpenter, B. E.; Doran, R. W. (1986), <i>A. M. Turing's ACE Report of 1946 and Other Papers</i>, Cambridge: MIT Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCopeland2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="Jack_Copeland" title="Jack Copeland">Copeland, B. J.</a>, ed. (2005), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alanturingsautom0000unse"><i>Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine</i></a></span>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-856593-3</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCopeland2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="Jack_Copeland" title="Jack Copeland">Copeland, Jack</a> (2006), "Colossus and the Rise of the Modern Computer", in Copeland, B. Jack (ed.), <i>Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">108–</span>110, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-284055-4</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCopeland2012" class="citation book cs1">Copeland, B. Jack (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YhQZnczOS7kC&dq=DEUCE+1955&pg=PA164"><i>Alan Turing's Electronic Brain: The Struggle to Build the ACE, the World's Fastest Computer</i></a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199609154</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLavington1980" class="citation cs2">Lavington, Simon H. (1980), <i>Early British Computers: The Story of Vintage Computers and The People Who Built Them</i>, Manchester University Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson1980" class="citation cs2">Wilkinson, J. H. (1980), "Turing's Work at the National Physical Laboratory and the Construction of Pilot ACE, DEUCE and ACE", in Metropolis, Nicholas; Howlett, J.; Rota, G.-C. (eds.), <i>A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century</i>, New York: Academic Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYates1997" class="citation cs2">Yates, David M. (1997), <i>Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical Laboratory, 1945-1995</i>, London: Science Museum</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.umn.edu/107241">Oral history interview with Donald W. Davies</a>, <a href="Charles_Babbage_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>, University of Minnesota. Davies describes computer projects at the U.K. <a href="National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a>, from the 1947 design work of <a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> to the development of the two ACE computers. Davies discusses a much larger, second ACE, and the decision to contract with <a href="English_Electric" title="English Electric">English Electric</a> Company to build the <a href="English_Electric_DEUCE" title="English Electric DEUCE">DEUCE</a>—possibly the first commercially produced computer in Great Britain.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080710161217/http%3A//www.npl.co.uk/server.php?show%3Dnav.296">Events in the history of NPL — ACE computer</a></li></ul>

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